Writing a Research Report
The guidelines provide a general introduction to planning and writing a report but it is suggested that you read about writing research reports/dissertations before starting – see bibliography and our resources guide on this site.
We hope that you enjoy the experience of carrying out research and remember that your mentor/tutor is there to support you through the process. It might also help you to join a research action set of others writing their reports.
GETTING STARTED
TOPIC, CHOICE AND
STRUCTURE
A good research report should demonstrate:- an understanding of underpinning
themes critically evaluated gained from extensive, relevant reading of
relevant literature on previous research.
- the ability to collect data and
evidence systematically and justify your choices
- the ability to interpret, analyse
and evaluate data and evidence
- an ability to present data and
evidence accurately and appropriately
- critical thinking – raise and
discuss issues, not just present findings
- an ability to report effectively
- an ability to reflect on learning
PRACTICAL POINTS:
- Agree a target submission date
- Word limit
- Intermediate dates
- Presentation format
- Available support
- House style
1. Decide on a possible focus
and discuss with mentor/tutor.
2. Draw up a schedule: include
completion dates for different stages
3. Decide on literature to be
reviewed
4. Investigate research
methodology
5. Set up project and collect
data
6. Sort/study data
7. Analyse/interpret data
8. Draw conclusions
9. Make recommendations
10. Evaluate and write personal
reflections
TIMESCALES
These will vary depending on the type of research report you are doing and the available time within any given contract or semester.
Ideally the following is an idea of timescales you might need to ensure that you give sufficient time and attention to each part of the process.
- 2 months: Reading, making notes,
planning, setting up systems, writing introduction
- 2 months: Writing literature
review
- 1 month: Refining/writing up
research methods
- 1 month: Collecting/recording
data
- 1 month: Analysing data
- 1 month: Writing conclusions and
compiling bibliography and appendices
- 1 month Proofreading, correcting,
binding
CHOOSING THE SUBJECT
General
guidance- Choose something that interests
you but without any pre-conceived ideas of what you are likely to find
out. This could/should (depending
on brief) be an area that would be useful to the organisation. If this involves your organisation, discuss
terms of reference with them to ensure they agree the research is
appropriate and whether the research can be published.
- Consider feasibility such as
§ "Life" of topic
§ Likely result/usefulness
§ Timescales
§ Literature available
§ Ethical/moral considerations
§ Anticipated problems
STUCK FOR IDEAS?
§ Jot down possible areas of
interest.
§ Draw up a shortlist of
topics.
§ Check in library how much
has been written about a topic.
§ Use internet to check for
research journals/articles written on similar topics.
§ Compare/contrast a couple
of articles on a topic.
§ Discuss with others in the
organisation or in your research action set.
NARROW DOWN THE TOPIC:
Process of refining and clarifying:
- Identify broad area of study
- Refine to aspect of particular
interest
- Decide purpose (to develop
theory, monitor practice, evaluate, increase understanding, practical
outcomes?)
- Ask basic initial questions to
narrow down to specific area (who, what, where, when, why, how?)
- Refine questions to define
precise focus.
- Draft title - use positive terms
in title to reflect purpose (e.g. evaluate, examine, measure, survey,
assess)
§ Broad
area of study: Unemployment
§ Particular
interest: Youth unemployment
§ Initial
questions:
o Who do I mean by youth?
o Which young people in
particular am I interested in?
o What is the context?
o What aspects of
unemployment am I concerned about and why?
§ Specific
area: Unemployment among 16 to 25 year olds
in Nowheresville.
§ Purpose:
To find out how many young people are
unemployed and how this affects them and their community. To suggest ways of
improving things.
§ Precise
focus: The effects of unemployment on16-25
year olds in Nowheresville and on the local community.
Meet
with your mentor/tutor and take a few possible titles for discussion.
REPORT
STRUCTURE
When
writing your report, you need to think about your reader and present it in a
way that is easy to follow. Use of headings, paragraph numbers, tables, charts
and diagrams all help to take your reader on a clearly signposted journey.
We suggest you use the following headings to
structure your report:
Title
page - title of report, your name, organisation, date
of submission, name of tutor.
Acknowledgements
- optional
Contents
page - chapters, appendices, tables, figures,
illustrations
Executive
Summary – This is a summary and outline of main findings including context,
purpose, objectives, methods, main results, conclusions and recommendations for
the reader to get a feel for whether the rest of the report is of sufficient
interest to warrant spending time reading it!
Introduction – including background,
organisational context and circumstances leading to the investigation, the
terms of reference, aims and objectives.
Literature review – a critical analysis of
the most significant contributions to the literature, the theories, concepts,
issues and research reports that have shaped your research questions and the
approach you have chosen. Put your own
work into context. Move from general background/standard theoretical works to
more precise, recent work relevant to your topic. Cover a range of positions – not just those
you agree with. Show how existing
theories/research findings clarify your work.
Research methodology – Evidence of systematic
data collection and clear presentation of findings. This includes a justification for the choice
of methods chosen to investigate your topic, the procedures used, any ethical
issues, strengths and weaknesses of the approach, issues of validity and
reliability. Explain approach taken and
why particular methods and techniques were used. Describe procedures, size of samples, methods
of selection, choice of variables and controls, any tests of measurement, etc.
Mention deficiencies in methods. Clear
presentation of the findings using charts, graphs etc. where appropriate.
Analysis and interpretation
of Findings
– Comprehensive analysis and interpretation of findings in a holistic and
integrated manner. Construct a logical,
consistent argument based on the findings which analyses the information in the
light of your research objectives and the literature reviewed.
Conclusions – Summarise main points
and state any conclusions which can be drawn.
These must be based on evidence and indicate how firm the conclusion
is. Conclusions links the analysis of
your findings with your recommendations
Recommendations – these are a natural
follow-on from your conclusions and are actions for the future. They should be realistic, timely and
cost-effective and supported by an action plan.
Evaluation/personal
reflections
– this is where you can tell your reader what you have learned from the whole
process of your research. Include
comments from the organisation where appropriate.
Bibliography/Webliography – this is your list of
sources used. You must reference properly and fully to avoid plagiarism whether
intentional or not.
Please ensure
that any quotations are acknowledged
We use the Harvard system of
referencing, so do speak to your mentor/tutor if you aren’t sure whether you
are following the conventions correctly.
Appendices – Typical items to go in
this section could be copies of any questionnaires, interview schedules
etc. Please do not use this section as a
‘dumping ground’ for including all the information you want to put in the
report but would go over the word limit in doing so! It can be very irritating
for the reader to have to flip back and forth to follow your discussion. The
report should stand alone – without the appendices!
LITERATURE
REVIEW
WHY READ?
Having decided on a topic
it is essential to start reading to find out what is already known about that
subject. A key feature of any project is
to demonstrate an awareness of how it fits into the wider context of theory and
practice and this will be shown through the literature review. This is good practice for any project you
undertake.
The theoretical models
which are identified will run as a theme through the report. They will have a number of benefits as you
progress through the report including:
Getting ideas
for your project
Once you have identified a
topic, by reading around it you can see how other people have tackled similar
investigations. You can also get a feel
for the sort of views that are relevant to your topic, particularly views that
might not be expressed in an everyday work or managerial environment. In this way you can generate fresher or more
interesting ideas and you should be able to clarify your initial thoughts about
the way forward with your project. It is
important to read literature which both confirms and disconfirms your ideas so
that you can generate a balanced viewpoint.
Developing a
framework for analysis
When you have gathered your
data, later in the project, you will have to analyse and interpret it. In order to do this effectively you will need
to know what the key issues and concepts are and how they relate to each
other. These key issues and concepts
will come from a critical analysis of the literature you have read.
Collecting
secondary data
Start reading as soon as
you have an idea for your report.
As you read note different
ideas down and critically evaluate them against your own organisation and
ideas/models from other literature.
Start your bibliography using
the Harvard referencing system and note books or journals in it as you read
them.
Draft ideas and send
to/make notes for your mentor/tutor for discussion. This is really useful as it gives an
opportunity to share your reading and evaluation with your mentor/tutor and
explore the relevance of the literature to your topic.
WHAT TO READ?
If you are part of an
academic establishment then you will undoubtedly have access to a large library
and online journals and these make a good starting point for your literary
research. However, practitioners in the
workplace might not have this luxury and it is suggested that around 6 books
plus academic journals and other sources are used so here are a few hints and
tips:
A useful start, where you
are a member, are the professional bodies websites. They usually have books on the subject in
their library, fact sheets and articles which might be relevant. The fact sheets and articles often also have
bibliographies. This will give you an
idea of some of the books and journals which deal with your topic.
Once you have some titles
of books, it is useful to find reviews so that you can get an idea of how
useful they will be to your particular area of research. Useful sites for this are online book
companies like Amazon which give book reviews.
Also check whether your company subscribes to any online book companies
like books 24 which offer an online subscription service for management books.
Having decided on 5/6 books
that look interesting you could ask your public library to get these for you –
most libraries offer a service where they will get almost any book in print for
you in 2-3 weeks. It might be worth
buying one or two key texts.
Books are an excellent way
of getting background reading on a topic and finding out the established
views. However research into different
aspects is ongoing and it is important to have up to date academic research to
show that you are aware of the latest thinking.
This does need to be credible, valid and reliable and therefore it is
suggested you only use reliable sources.
When using general web searches ensure that they are from credible
sources such as universities (they have ac in their url eg www.leeds.ac.uk).
Tip: As you read note down useful quotes and start bibliography – this way
you won’t forget which books you’ve read and where the quotes came from! Doing the bibliography as you go along also
seems less daunting.
EVALUATING
AND ANALYSING THE LITERATURE
Being critical does not necessarily mean being
negative, but it does involve you in responding to what you have read in a way
that examines the reading objectively.
There are a number of ways of doing this:
Include work that supports your ideas but also
consider approaches that oppose them.
Make explicit the values and theories that underpin
what you are reading about and then consider how well they link together
Discuss what you are reading in the light of
existing critiques of the theories and concepts
Relate different readings with each other – look for
similarities but also for contradictions or tensions between the opinions and
approaches of different authors
Support your arguments and judgements about the
value of different approaches with reasoned explanations.
How to approach the literature review
Start at a general level and outline the main
contextual features of the topic you are researching.
Provide a brief overview of key ideas that are
relevant to the topic.
Summarise, compare and contrast the work of key
writers in the field
Narrow down to highlight the work most relevant to
your research
Highlight any areas where your research will provide
fresh insights.
Points to remember!
Include theories that are relevant to your
investigation
Demonstrate that you are up to date in your
knowledge of the topic.
Write a critical assessment of previously published
work on the topic. This involves
identifying its strengths and weaknesses as well as any areas that may have
been left out or handled in a biased way.
You must show adequate references to substantial and
appropriate research-oriented journals within your literature review.
Harvard Referencing
As you find your sources get into the
habit of using a referencing system. The most common system is the Harvard and
looks like this:
PEOPLE
MANAGEMENT (2000) ‘Managers fail to blow whistle on fraud’
28 December.
PURCELL,
K. and ELIAS, P. (2003)
‘On higher ground’, People
Management, 29 May.
LESTER
STAN
http://www.devmts.demon.co.uk
LESTER
STAN
(1997) Learning for the 21st Century,
LESTER
STAN
(1996) Beyond Knowledge and Competence,
RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
The term methodology means an ‘analysis of and
rationale for the particular method or methods used’ (Jankowicz (2000) pp
212-13) and an explanation and
justification of the methods you have chosen to use for your research is
required for the MRR. This justification includes the choice of methods chosen to investigate your topic, the procedures used, any ethical issues, strengths and weaknesses of the approach, issues of validity and reliability. You will also need to explain the approach taken and why particular methods and techniques were used, describe procedures, size of samples, methods of selection, choice of variables and controls, any tests of measurement, etc. and mention any deficiencies in methods.
When planning to collect your data your starting point is to think about the following (taken from Valerie Anderson):
What are my research
questions?
 |
Specifically – what
information do I need
to answer my research
questions?
|
How or where can I
get the information I need?
|
|
Secondary data Primary
data
 |
 |
|
|
Published sources Unpublished sources Qualitative data Quantitative data
eg
company documents |
|
How will I identify and
access What
is the research population?
potential
sources of secondary
Information?
What
would form a representative
sample
of the research population?
How will I
record the data I obtain?
|
How
reliable and valid will my data be?
Once
you have decided on the questions/objectives of your research then you can plan
the methods that will give you the information you need. Some basic research methods with their
advantages, disadvantages and challenges are given below – see www.managementhelp.org/research/overview.htm.
Overview of Basic Methods to Collect Information
Written by Carter McNamara, PhD | Applies to nonprofits and for-profits unless noted
The following table provides an overview of the basic methods to collect data.
|
Method
|
Overall Purpose
|
Advantages
|
Challenges
|
|
questionnaires,
surveys,
checklists |
when need to
quickly and/or easily get lots of information from people in a non
threatening way
|
-can complete
anonymously
-inexpensive to administer -easy to compare and analyze -administer to many people -can get lots of data -many sample questionnaires already exist |
-might not get
careful feedback
-wording can bias client's responses -are impersonal -in surveys, may need sampling expert - doesn't get full story |
|
interviews
|
when want to
fully understand someone's impressions or experiences, or learn more about
their answers to questionnaires
|
-get full range and
depth of information
-develops relationship with client -can be flexible with client |
-can take much time
-can be hard to analyze and compare -can be costly -interviewer can bias client's responses |
|
documentation
review
|
when want
impression of how program operates without interrupting the program; is from
review of applications, finances, memos, minutes, etc.
|
-get
comprehensive and historical information
-doesn't interrupt program or client's routine in program -information already exists -few biases about information |
-often takes
much time
-info may be incomplete -need to be quite clear about what looking for -not flexible means to get data; data restricted to what already exists |
|
observation
|
to gather
accurate information about how a program actually operates, particularly
about processes
|
-view operations
of a program as they are actually occurring
-can adapt to events as they occur |
-can be
difficult to interpret seen behaviors
-can be complex to categorize observations -can influence behaviors of program participants -can be expensive |
|
focus groups
|
explore a topic
in depth through group discussion, e.g., about reactions to an experience or
suggestion, understanding common complaints, etc.; useful in evaluation and
marketing
|
-quickly and reliably get common impressions
-can be efficient way to get much range and depth of information in short time - can convey key information about programs |
-can be hard to
analyze responses
-need good facilitator for safety and closure -difficult to schedule 6-8 people together |
|
case studies
|
to fully
understand or depict client's experiences in a program, and conduct
comprehensive examination through cross comparison of cases
|
-fully depicts client's experience in program input,
process and results
-powerful means to portray program to outsiders |
-usually quite
time consuming to collect, organize and describe
-represents depth of information, rather than breadth |
As you investigate these questions note the reasons
for your choice and also the reasons for not choosing different methods and
write these up.
Tip: You will need to justify your decision so write up the advantages and
disadvantages of different research methods, why you decided on the method you
chose and why you didn’t chose the
other possible methods.
When thinking about the type of data you want to
collect you will also need to ensure you have both quantitative and qualitative
data.
Quantitative data is objective
o
concerned
with observable, objective, measurable facts, physical characteristics and the
outside world
o
hypothesis
indicated at beginning of research then tested through experiment involves
measurement and comparison of data at beginning and end of period
o
large
samples involved
o
results
presented as %s and in graphs
o
researcher
remote from group
Qualitative data is subjective
o
often
concerned with social aspects of lives of groups and individuals
o
concerned
with immeasurable features - meanings and experience
o
data
used to generate new hypothesis or theory
o
concerned
with explanation and interpretation
o
involves
techniques such as case study, informal discussion, self discovery
o
smaller
samples involved
o
results
analysed and reported
o
researcher
more involved with group
Getting and
Analysing the data
You now have a clear plan of what data you need
to find the answers to your research objectives and how you are going to get
it. The next stage is to carry this out.
Tip: When using research that isn’t face to face
remember to explain why you are asking for the information and to thank people
for their contribution. It is also
useful to note that the return on mailings is not very high so where possible
consider other methods.
Once the data starts to come in, there are
a number of things to consider:
Have you got enough information
to work with? If not, why do you think that is?
Are the results reasonably
representative of the planned sample?
How do the results link back to
your aims and objectives? What does the
information prove?
How do they link to the things
you have read in your literature review? Do they support or contradict what you
have read?
PRESENTING THE DATA
When you have
collected all the data, you need to be able to analyse it. To do this the data needs to be presented in
a manageable way. There are many ways of presenting data and it is suggested that you think about how you will do this before deciding on the most appropriate research methods to choose and this will form part of the rationale for your choice.
When presenting quantitative data it is helpful to use graphs, charts and diagrams to make it easier to analyse.
When presenting qualitative data, summarise the comments where possible into x number of people commented that ………….
Tip: Can you present the information in charts,
diagrams and tables for ease of analysis and presentation?
ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION
Explore key themes
– what answers does it give to the research question? What was surprising about the information,
were there any ‘unplanned’ issues!Discuss your interpretation of the findings and link it back to your terms of reference, the project objectives and the literature review.
When analysing the data some useful guidelines are:
- It is not enough just to present
findings
- Need to show how findings support
your argument
- what light do they shed on the
topic?
- what significance do they have
for the topic?
- what weight can be given to
them?
- how do they relate to other
views?
- Need to interpret, analyse,
criticise
- Look for similarities, groupings,
patterns, items of particular significance
- Need to raise/discuss issues
- What is fact and what is opinion?
- Any weaknesses, errors,
omissions? Other explanations possible?
- Do not claim more for the results
than they provide – are they reliable and valid?
- Do not attempt generalisations
based on insufficient data
COMING
TO CONCLUSIONS
Make
notes about the results, paying particular attention to the things you are
concluding from them. When you write up your report, it is extremely important
that you are able to justify your conclusions by drawing on the things you have
read, the benchmarking you have carried out and your research questions.
The
main things to be aware of in drawing your conclusions are as follows:
l
There must be an audit trail from your
conclusions to their origin. The reader should be able to trace your
conclusions to your line of thought/argument/discussion.
l
Conclusions should be firmly based on the
evidence you present. If you cannot substantiate any claims you want to make,
leave them out
l
If your results are inconclusive, don’t
worry! This is all part of the investigation. You should acknowledge the
inconclusiveness and note the issues involved, e.g., flawed method(s), poor
number of responses, ambiguities in the data, how the results compare to ‘best
practice’.
l
Your conclusions should act as the business
case that clearly signposts your recommendations
MAKING
RECOMMENDATIONS
These
should come naturally from your conclusions and therefore be linked to your
results, analysis and discussion.
You
should state your recommendations in ‘action’ terms and include where you can,
l
who is responsible,
l
cost/benefits,
l
feasibility,
l
priorities and timescales,
l
likely outcomes/impact on the organisation
(threats? opportunities?)
You
may want to consider using a tabular format for this section of your report.
|
RECOMMENDATION
|
WHO IS RESPONSIBLE
|
RESOURCES REQUIRED
COST/BENEFIT
|
OUTCOMES/
SUCCESS MEASURES/
THREATS/
OPPORTUNITIES
|
TIMESCALES
PRIORITY FEASIBILITY
RATING
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
PERSONAL
EVALUATION/REFLECTION
It
is important that you reflect on what you have learned during your research and
that you express this.
l
What worked and why?
l
What didn’t – and why?
l
What would you do differently and why?
The
answers may lie in the choice of subject, the research methods chosen, the
literature available, organisational issues, timing ……………….
There
are a host of different things that may have arisen during your study so,
ASSESSMENT
OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
The
process for assessment of research reports will vary depending on their focus,
for instance whether it is part of your teacher training qualification, whether
it is a report for an organisation or a funded project by LSIS.
Within
the teacher training qualification, it is usual to have:
Development stage
During this stage you will get formative
feedback from your Advisor
Assessment stage
Your report will be formally marked
against the criteria
Internal Moderation
The tutors will meet to share their
comments and grades given,
External Moderation
Samples of research reports will be externally
moderated to ensure fair and reliable assessment across all centres.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANDERSON, V. (2004) ‘Research Methods in Human Resource Management’, London, CIPD
BARNES, R. (2004) 3rd Edn. ‘Successful Study for Degrees’,
Routledge
BELL, J. (2005) 4th edn. ‘Doing Your Research Project: A Guide for First-Time Researchers in
Education, Health and Social Science’, Buckingham, Open University Press
BLAXTER, L., HUGHES, C and TIGHT, M. (2006) 3rd edn ‘How to Research’ Buckingham, Open University Press
ORNA, E and STEVENS, G. (1995) ‘Managing Information for Research’, Buckingham, Open University
PressCRYER, P. (2006) 3rd Edn. ‘The Research Student’s Guide to Success’, Buckingham, Open University Press
SWETNAM,
D. (2000) 3rd Edn. ‘Writing Your Dissertation: The Bestselling Guide to
Planning, Preparing and Presenting First-Class Work’ Publisher: Oxford, How To Books Ltd
WEBLIOGRAPHY
McNamara, C. Free Management Library:
Overview of basic methods to collect information Available from world wide web: www.managementhelp.org/research/overview.htm.
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